The obtained results indicated a significance difference between the two groups in the dimensions of novelty seeking and cooperativeness. Novelty seeking reflected a hereditary orientation in onset or activation of novelty seeking response, approach to reward cues, active avoidance of conditioned punishment cues, and unconditioned punishment escape. This dimension is observed as an exploratory activity in responding to novelty, impulsivity, exaggeration in approaching to reward cues, indulgence and disorder, fatigue and quick fed up, and active avoidance of failure. Different neural moderators are involved in temperament dimensions. The neural moderator of novelty seeking is dopamine which is an incentive neural moderator. Behavioral responses sent after novelty seeking includes exploratory pursuit, voracity, active avoidance, and escape. Therefore, opiate addicts have traits such as indulgence in approach to reward cues, impulsivity, novelty seeking and pursuit of reward cues that distinguish them from the other groups. Many of these traits cause an individual to go towards activities in which the person looks for reward cues, seeks novelty, and acts impulsively. Impulsivity is one of the key traits of this dimension. In other researches, also, novelty seeking dimension in drug addicts was higher than that of the ordinary population, and in some studies, it was higher than that of the alcohol addicts (16, 17).
Thus, findings of the current research can be explained as follows: opiate dependent individuals have traits such as indulgence in approach to reward cues, impulsivity, novelty seeking, and pursuit of reward cues that distinguishes them from the other groups. Drug, itself, is a very strong incentive reward and affects the reward system of the brain. Drug dependent individuals use drugs to supply the dopamine for their limbic system which is the reward system of brain, (18). Also, these people display behaviors such as exploratory pursuits of drugs, active avoidance of withdrawal cues (including pain, and unpleasant physical and mental states) and voracity. Voracity is one of the important factors in drug abuse, staying in withdrawal, and failure to return. Voracity is high in drug addicts and high voracity has a negative correlation with successful withdrawal. This dimension of personality traits in the current research was compatible with many of the previous studies in this area such as results gained by Ball et al. (19), Gabel et al. (20), Le Bon et al. (8), Evren et al. (21), and Herrero et al. (22).
Also, cooperativeness dimension in opiate dependent inpatients was significantly lower than those of the other groups. Individuals with higher degrees of this dimension consider themselves as an inseparable member of the human society and are, generally, sympathetic, patient, compassionate, merciful, and supportive, and adhere to the principles and rules. People with low cooperativeness are self-attracted, impatient and intolerant, critical, avenger, and opportunistic. These individuals do not usually assist others, and in every situation, first think about themselves. Also, they intend to be inattentive about other people’s emotions and rights. It seems natural that opiate addicts are lower in cooperativeness dimension. These people are intolerant, do not adhere to the principles and rules, and are inattentive to others’ emotions and rights.
The difference of nicotine addicts and ordinary population with opiate dependent individuals in this dimension relates to supportiveness, adherence to the rules and principles, participation in group works, compassion, kindness, and patience. This finding is in agreement with the findings of many previous studies such as those of Evren et al. (21) and Herrow et al. (22).
High novelty seeking and low cooperativeness in drug dependent people are two distinguished features. Evren et al. (21) argued that high novelty seeking is one of the distinguished features in category B of personality disorders, namely, the same category in which anti-social personality disorder is placed; therefore, drug dependent individuals with higher novelty seeking may have symptoms of anti-social personality disorder. Le Bon et al. (8) found that heroin abusers’ (an opiate substance) personality profile indicate more anti-social personality traits compared to that of alcohol addicts. Evren et al. (21) also pointed out that reward dependence is one of the characteristics of category A, high reward novelty seeking is one of the characteristics of category B, and high harm avoidance is one of the characteristics related to category C of personality disorders (21).
Moreover, results showed that low onset age of smoking cigarettes, lower education, and low cooperativeness and self-directedness dimensions predicted future use of opiate drugs after onset of smoking cigarettes. In a research performed on the onset age of drug use, Chen et al. (23) identified that low onset age of smoking is one of the predisposing factors for future drug use. This implies that the lower the onset age of smoking, the more probable that the person refers to using other illegal drugs (23). Studies indicated that cigarettes can be the gateway drug for other substances including alcohol. Mayet et al. (12) reported that the average onset age of smoking in their research samples was 13.4 (13.3 for boys, 13.5 for girls), and the mean (average) onset age of using alcohol was 15.1 (15.0 for boys, 15.2 for girls). It implies the lower age mean in smokers. Experiencing tobacco before starting to use hashish occurred in 98% of hashish users (12). Guxens et al. (11) indicated that tobacco and alcohol use preceded the use of hashish and the performed meta-analyses showed that it is 1.7 to 2.6 times more likely that tobacco and alcohol consumers use hashish. Therefore, the current research results are in accordance with those of other studies, indicating that lower onset age of smoking is a predisposing factor for future use of other drugs. Also, it is natural that when self-directedness traits are cases such as responsibility, purposefulness, trouble-shooting, self-acceptance, and adapting to society’s norms, then this dimension can play an effective role to predict drug dependence. Self-directedness is, to some extent, a component of a coherent ego that enables individuals to delay satisfying their needs, be self-accepted, purposeful, and responsible. Low cooperativeness dimension in the present research is another predicting factor of drug dependence. As mentioned in the previous sections, cases such as empathy, sympathy, usefulness, and having a clean heart are among cooperativeness traits. Therefore, cooperativeness can be another component of a coherent ego, it means that individuals can consider norms of the society, be socially useful, and have empathy and a clean heart. In general, three dimensions of self-directedness, cooperativeness, and self-transcendence can, to some extent, reflect an individual’s coherent ego and degree of sophistication. Then, it can be explained that low character dimensions in opiate addicts, that were low in all three dimensions in this research, can indicate ego incoherence and non-sophistication.
Evren et al. (21) in their research concluded that high novelty seeking and low cooperativeness along with low onset age of smoking cigarettes predict drug dependence. In their study, subscales predicting drug dependence were more reasonable than low age, lower scores in subscales of sympathy and compassion vs. malice and usefulness, and higher scores in subscale of spiritual acceptance vs. materialism. Therefore, low self-directedness and cooperativeness, low onset age of smoking cigarettes and low education can predict drug dependence.
According to the current and prior studies, it is clarified that many of the people using illegal substances have some personality characteristics such as novelty seeking, and antisocial traits that cause to start smoking in lower ages, and then approach to use any kind of substances. This matter can help to conduct better therapies to treat substance abusers and dependents.
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